Detection of Neutrinos, Antineutrinos, and Neutrino-like Particles

ABSTRACT

An apparatus for detecting the presence of a nuclear reactor by the detection of antineutrinos from the reactor can include a radioactive sample having a measurable nuclear activity level and a decay rate capable of changing in response to the presence of antineutrinos, and a detector associated with the radioactive sample. The detector is responsive to at least one of a particle or radiation formed by decay of the radioactive sample. A processor associated with the detector can correlate rate of decay of the radioactive sample to a flux of the antineutrinos to detect the reactor.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 14/152,623 filed on Jan. 10, 2014, which is a continuation ofU.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/563,969 filed Aug. 1, 2012, which isa continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/235,393 filed onSep. 22, 2008, which claims priority to and the benefit of U.S.provisional patent application no. 60/974,275 filed in the United StatesPatent Office on Sep. 21, 2007. This application also claims benefit ofU.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/055,310, filed Sep. 25, 2014.The disclosures of each of these applications are incorporated herein byreference in their entireties.

GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

The government may have certain rights in portions of the invention madewith government support under Contracts DE-AC02-76ERO142 andDE-NE0000586 awarded by the Department of Energy.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates generally to the detection of neutrinos,antineutrinos, and neutrino-like particles, and to systems and methodsfor detecting a nuclear reactor.

BACKGROUND

Solar flares are periods of increased solar activity, and are associatedwith geomagnetic storms, solar radiation storms, and radio blackoutsthat are experienced here on Earth. Neutrinos are sub-atomic particlesthat are generated by the Sun, and it has been speculated that theincreased activity associated with solar flares can produce a short-termchange in the neutrino flux detected on Earth. Detecting flare neutrinosmay lead to a deeper insight into the mechanisms underlying flares, andmay have practical consequences.

To date, there appears to be little if any compelling experimentalevidence of an association between neutrino flux and solar flares, andthis is due in part to the relatively low neutrino counting ratesavailable from even the largest conventional detectors. The firstobservation and measurement of solar neutrino flux used a chlorinedetector in the Homestake Gold Mine in South Dakota. The detector was asingle tank containing 615 tons of tetrachloroethylene. The GALLEXdetector is located at the Gran Sasso Underground Laboratories in Italy.The GALLEX detector senses solar neutrinos using a 100 ton galliumchloride target solution. A 50 kton imaging water Cerenkov detector,known as the Super Kamioka Nucleon Decay Experiment detector, has beenused in Japan.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention features, in one embodiment, a radioactive sample having adecay rate capable of changing in response to interaction with aparticle or a field, e.g., emitted by the Sun. A second particle orradiation formed by decay of the radioactive sample can be detected, andthe rate of decay of the radioactive sample can be correlated to flux ofthe first particle or the field. Detection of the first particle or thefield can provide an early warning for an impending solar event.

In one aspect, there is a flux detection apparatus including aradioactive sample having a decay rate capable of changing in responseto interaction with at least one of a first particle or a field, adetector associated with the radioactive sample, and a processorassociated with the detector. The detector is responsive to at least oneof a second particle or radiation formed by decay of the radioactivesample. The processor correlates rate of decay of the radioactive sampleto flux of the first particle or the field.

In another aspect, there is a method including determining a change in adecay rate of a radioactive sample that interacts with at least one of aparticle or a field, and correlating the decay rate of the radioactivesample with the flux of the particle or the field. A specified change inthe flux indicates a solar event. In certain embodiments, a secondparticle or radiation formed by decay of the radioactive sample isdetected to determine the change in the decay rate of the radioactivesample.

In yet another aspect, there is an early warning system for detection ofa solar event. The system includes a radioactive sample having a decayrate that changes in response to interaction with at least one of afirst particle or a field, a detector associated with the radioactivesample, and a processor associated with the detector. The detector isresponsive to at least one of a second particle or radiation generatedby decay of the radioactive sample. The processor correlates the decayrate of the radioactive sample to the flux of the first particle or thefield. An indicator signifies an impending solar event in response to aspecified change in the flux.

In still another aspect, there is a method of notifying a user of animpending solar event. A change in a decay rate of a radioactive samplethat interacts with at least one of a particle or a field is determined.The decay rate of the radioactive sample is correlated with the flux ofthe particle or the field. The user is notified of a specified change inthe flux indicative of the impending solar event.

In yet another aspect, there is an early warning system for detection ofa solar event. The system includes a memory module storing dataindicative of solar events, and a processor associated with the memorymodule. The processor correlates (i) a decay rate of a radioactivesample to flux of at least one of a first particle or a field receivedby the radioactive sample and (ii) the data indicative of solar eventsto determine likelihood of the solar event. An indicator associated withthe processor signifies the impending solar event.

In another aspect, there is an apparatus comprising means fordetermining a change in a decay rate of a radioactive sample thatinteracts with at least one of the particle or the field, and means forcorrelating the decay rate of the radioactive sample with the flux ofthe particle or the field. A specified change in the flux indicates asolar event. The apparatus can include means for notifying a user of aspecified change in the flux indicative of the impending solar event.

In yet another aspect, there is an apparatus for detecting the presenceof a nuclear reactor by the detection of antineutrinos from the reactor.The apparatus can include a radioactive sample having a measurablenuclear activity level and a decay rate capable of changing in responseto the presence of antineutrinos, and a detector associated with theradioactive sample. The detector is responsive to at least one of aparticle or radiation formed by decay of the radioactive sample. Aprocessor associated with the detector can correlate rate of decay ofthe radioactive sample to a flux of the antineutrinos to detect thereactor.

In still another aspect, there is an apparatus for detectingantineutrinos from a reactor including a radioactive sample having ameasurable rate of radioactive count generation and a decay rate capableof changing in response to the presence of antineutrinos, and a detectorassociated with the radioactive sample. The detector can obtainradioactive count information responsive to at least one of a particleor radiation formed by decay of the radioactive sample. A processorassociated with the detector can correlate the radioactive countinformation to a flux of the antineutrinos to detect a presence of thereactor.

In yet another aspect, there is an apparatus for detecting antineutrinosfrom a reactor including a radioactive sample that generates ameasurable number of radioactive counts over a predetermined period oftime and that has a decay rate capable of changing in response to thepresence of antineutrinos or neutrino-like particles. The apparatusfurther includes a detector associated with the radioactive sample. Thedetector can measure a change in a rate of the radioactive countgeneration responsive the presence of the antineutrinos or neutrino-likeparticles. A processor associated with the detector can correlate thechange in the rate of radioactive count information to detect a presenceof the reactor.

In another aspect, there is a method for detecting antineutrinos from areactor. The method includes determining, by a flux detection device, achange in a decay rate of a radioactive sample that changes in responseto antineutrinos. The radioactive sample has a measurable nuclearactivity level. The method further includes correlating, by the fluxdetection device, the decay rate of the radioactive sample with a fluxof the antineutrinos.

In other examples, any of the aspects above, or any apparatus or methoddescribed herein, can include one or more of the following features.

The first particle can be a neutrino. The second particle can include atleast one of an electron, an alpha particle, or a beta particle. Theparticle formed by decay of the radioactive sample can be at least oneof an electron, a proton, a neutron, an alpha particle, or a betaparticle. The radioactive sample can be a radioactive isotope of atleast one of manganese, radium, silicon, fluorine, chlorine, titanium,cesium, cobalt, europium, carbon, or sodium. The radiation can includeat least one gamma ray or photon. A specified change in the flux can beindicative of a solar event or the presence of a reactor.

In certain embodiments, a system or apparatus can include a secondradioactive sample having a second decay rate that changes in responseto interaction with at least one of the first particle or the field. Asecond detector is associated with the second radioactive sample. Thesecond detector is responsive to at least one of a third particle or asecond radiation generated by decay of the second radioactive sample.The processor can correlate the decay rate of the radioactive sample andthe second decay rate of the second radioactive sample to the flux ofthe first particle or the field.

A memory module can be associated with the processor. The memory modulecan store data indicative of solar events. The processor can correlatethe specified change in the flux and the data indicative of solar eventsto determine likelihood of the impending solar event.

The indicator can include a communications module adapted fortransmitting a signal indicative of the impending solar event to theuser. The communications module can be adapted for transmitting a signalindicative of the impending solar event to a remote module capable ofbeing disabled in advance of the impending solar event affecting theremote module.

In certain embodiments, the radioactive sample can be exposed to theparticle or the field, and a second particle or radiation formed bydecay of the radioactive sample can be detected. The decay rate of theradioactive sample can be correlated with a known decay rate of theradioactive sample to determine the specified change in the flux.

A second change in a second decay rate of a second radioactive samplethat interacts with the particle or the field can be determined, and thedecay rate of the radioactive sample and the second decay rate of thesecond radioactive sample can be correlated with the flux of theparticle or the field.

A signal indicative of the impending solar event can be transmitted to auser. A signal indicative of the impending solar event can betransmitted to a remote module capable of being disabled in advance ofthe impending solar event affecting the remote module.

In certain embodiments, the detector is responsive to at least one gammaray emitted from de-excitation of ⁵⁴Cr produced from K-capture process⁵⁴Mn+e→⁵⁴Cr+v_(e).

In some examples, the processor identifies a specific change in the fluxof antineutrinos to detect the reactor. In some examples, the processoridentifies a specific change in the flux of antineutrinos based on thechange in the rate of radioactive count information to detect thepresence of the reactor.

The details of one or more examples are set forth in the accompanyingdrawings and the description below. Further features, aspects, andadvantages of the invention will become apparent from the description,the drawings, and the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The advantages of the invention described above, together with furtheradvantages, may be better understood by referring to the followingdescription taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. Thedrawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead generally beingplaced upon illustrating the principles of the invention.

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a system for detecting a particle orfield emitted, e.g., from the Sun.

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a system for detecting a particle orfield emitted, e.g., from the Sun.

FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of an early warning system for alerting auser to a solar event.

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a system for detecting a particle orfield emitted, e.g., from the Sun.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of an early warning system for alerting aremote module to a solar event.

FIGS. 6-8 are graphs showing x-ray data from an X3 class solar flare andthe normalized ⁵⁴Mn counting rates.

FIG. 9 is a graph showing the effect of fluctuations in the Earth'smagnetic field on the detection system.

FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram of an array of detection systems.

DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

FIG. 1 shows a system 10 for detecting flux of a particle and/or field14. The system 10 includes a radioactive sample 18, a detector 22, and aprocessor 26. The radioactive sample 18 has a decay rate capable ofchanging in response to interaction with the first particle and/or thefield 14. The detector 22 is associated with the radioactive sample 18,and is responsive to at least one of a second particle or radiation 30formed by decay of the radioactive sample 18. The processor 26 isassociated with the detector 22, and correlates rate of decay of theradioactive sample 18 to flux of the first particle and/or the field 14.A specified change in the flux can indicate a solar event (e.g., astorm, flare, or other activity).

The system 10 can include a housing 34, which can enclose one or more ofthe radioactive sample 18 and the detector 22. The processor 26 can beenclosed in the housing 34, can be outside the housing 34 and incommunication with the processor 26 via connection 38, or can be fixedto an outer surface of the housing 34.

The particle and/or field 14 can be emitted from the Sun. In certainembodiments, the particle is a neutrino or other particle emitted by theSun. In some embodiments, the field can be an electric field, magneticfield, an electromagnetic field, or a gravitation field of the Sun. Thesecond particle can be an electron, an alpha particle, or a betaparticle emitted by the radioactive sample. Radiation can be one or morephotons, e.g., of electromagnetic radiation. The radioactive sample caninclude radioactive isotopes or materials having a measurable nuclearactivity level and a decay rate capable of changing in response to thepresence of neutrinos, antineutrinos, or neutrino-like particles. Theradioactive sample can include a radioactive isotope, e.g., manganese,radium, silicon, fluorine, chlorine, titanium, cesium, cobalt (e.g.,⁶⁰Co), europium (e.g., ¹⁵²Eu), carbon, or sodium. In some embodiments,the radioactive sample generates a measurable number of radioactivecounts over a predetermined period of time, e.g., a measurable rate ofradioactive count generation. One of ordinary skill in the art willunderstand that other suitable radioactive isotopes or radioactivematerials can be used for the radioactive sample without departing fromthe spirit and scope of the present disclosure.

The processor 26 can be a computer processor, a computer device, or anycomponent of a computer (e.g., a module or a card). Furthermore, theprocessor 26 can carry out a computerized method and/or operate using acomputer program product, tangibly embodied in an information carrier,for verifying document compliance to a standard. The computer programproduct can include instructions being operable to cause dataprocessing.

FIG. 2 shows an early warning system 42 for detection of a solar event.The system 42 includes radioactive sample 18, detector 22, and processor26. An indicator 46 signifies an impending solar event in response to aspecified change in the flux. Particle or field 14 can be emitted by theSun 50.

Processor 26 can include a memory module 54 that can store dataindicative of solar events. The processor 26 can correlate the specifiedchange in the flux and the data indicative of solar events to determinelikelihood of the impending solar event.

The indicator 46 can include a communications module 58 adapted fortransmitting a signal indicative of the impending solar event to a user.The communications module 58 can be adapted for transmitting a signalindicative of the impending solar event to a remote module, which can bedisabled in advance of the impending solar event.

FIG. 3 shows an early warning system 42′ including radioactive sample18, detector 22, processor 26, and indicator 46. The early warningsystem 42′ can include a pre-amplifier 62 and an amplifier 66, which canamplify the signal being analyzed by the processor 26,

FIG. 4 shows a system 10′ for detecting flux of at least one of aparticle or field 14 emitted, e.g., by the Sun. The system 10′ includesa first detection system 70 and a second detection system 70′. The firstdetection system 70 includes radioactive sample 18 and detector 22. Thesecond detection system 70′ includes radioactive sample 18′ and detector22′. Signals from detector 22 and detector 22′ are analyzed by processor26.

By using two or more detection systems, a radioactive sample can beselected that can better match the energy spectrum of the particle orfield. For example, certain isotopes can be matched to the energyspectrum of neutrinos being emitted by the Sun. Furthermore, differentradioactive samples can provide different sensitivities over differenttimescales, so that a radioactive sample can be matched to theanticipated or observed particle or field emitted by the Sun. Therefore,the processor 26 can weight a signal from the first radioactive sample18 differently than a signal from the second radioactive sample 18′during signal analysis.

FIG. 5 shows indicator 46 in communication with a remote module via anetwork 74. The remote module can be, e.g., satellite 78 or spacecraft82. The indicator 46 can communicate with the remote module viacommunications module 58. The remote module can be disabled, shielded,or otherwise protected in advance of an impending solar event havingpotentially harmful effects for the remote module or its occupants.

Observations made during the solar eclipses of 14 Oct. 2004, 8 Apr.2005, and 22 Sep. 2006 suggest that solar activity influences nucleardecay. For example, the timing of spikes in the decay rate of ¹³⁷Cs andother nuclides suggests that these spikes can result from changes indetected solar activity, rather than as a result of local systematiceffects. Analysis of timing data further suggests that at least part ofthe observed fluctuations in decay rates can be due to the fluctuationin the flux of solar neutrinos reaching a decaying sample. Data obtainedduring the solar flare of 13 Dec. 2006 (the x-rays of which were firstrecorded at 21:37 EST on 12 December) can be used to support theconclusion that the decaying samples responded to changes in the flux ofsolar neutrinos. In addition, a general class of neutrino interactionscan account for both the observed solar flare data.

The radioactive sample 18 can be attached to a front surface of thedetector 22. The radioactive sample 18 can be a 1 μCi sample of ⁵⁴Mn;the detector 22 can be a Bicron 2×2 inch NaI(T1) crystal detector (e.g.,model number 2M2/2-X). The pre-amplifier 62 can include aphotomultiplier (PMT) (e.g., an Ortec PMT base). The amplifier 66 can bea spectroscopy amplifier (e.g., an Ortec 276), which can be used toanalyze the preamplifier signal. Software associated with processor 26can be used for collecting and analyzing data. For example, an OrtecTrump PC1 card can run Ortec's Maestro32 MCA software.

In certain embodiments, the radioactive sample 18 can include a gasfilled radiation detector, a solid state radiation detector, a plasticradiation scintillation detector, or a Geiger counter.

The system can be used to record the 834.8 keV γ-ray emitted from thede-excitation of ⁵⁴Cr produced from the K-capture process⁵⁴Mn+e→⁵⁴Cr+v_(e). The radioactive sample 18 and the detector 22 can beshielded on all sides by lead bricks, except at the end of the PMT basewhere a space can be left to accommodate any communication cables. Forexample, the lead bricks can comprise or be a component of housing 38.

The decay rate of ⁵⁴Mn can be compared to a baseline of data todetermine if a change in the decay rate has resulted. The baseline canbe established by comparison to a known source of neutrinos (e.g., ashielded 44 Ci¹³⁷Cs source) or by measurement of a naturally occurringsource. Observation of a difference in the decay rate versus the knownsource, or a spike in decay rate versus a natural source, can resultfrom neutrinos influencing the nuclear decay rates of the ⁵⁴Mn sample.For example, a decrease in the decay of ⁵⁴Mn (as measured by a decreasein the photon count rate) can signal an impending solar event. Thedecrease in the decay of ⁵⁴Mn can achieve a predetermined, selected, orspecified level to indicate the solar event. In certain embodiments, anincrease in the decay of a radioactive sample can signal an impendingsolar event. In certain embodiments, an increase in the production ofthe second particle or radiation can signal an impending solar event(e.g., electrons produced by a radioactive sample of silicon).

On 13 Dec. 2006, a solar flare was detected by the GeostationaryOperational Environmental Satellites (GOES-10 and GOES-11). Spikes inthe x-ray and proton fluxes were recorded by GOES satellites. FIGS. 6-8show x-ray data from X3 class solar flares and the normalized ⁵⁴Mncounting rates. In each 4 hour live-time period (about 4.25 hoursreal-time), about 2.5×10⁷ 834.8 keV y-rays with a fractional 1/√{squareroot over (N)} statistical uncertainty of about 2×10⁻⁴ were recorded.Each data point in FIGS. 6-8 represents the number of counts in thesubsequent 4 hour period, normalized by the number of counts N(t)expected from a monotonic exponential decay, N(t)=N_(o)e^(−λt), withλ≅0.00235d⁻¹. For the x-ray data, each point is the solar flux in W/m²summed over the same 4.25 hour period.

FIGS. 6-8 show that, to within the time resolution offered by the 4 hourwidth of the bins, the ⁵⁴Mn counting rates exhibit a decrease (anegative spike or trough), which is coincident in time with the spike inthe x-ray flux that signaled the onset of the solar flare. Although asecond x-ray peak on 13 December at 07:15 EST corresponds to arelatively small trough in the ⁵⁴Mn counting rate, a third peak on 17December at 02:40 EST is again accompanied by an obvious trough in the⁵⁴Mn counting rate.

Some x-ray spikes in these data sets are not accompanied bycorrespondingly prominent troughs in the ⁵⁴Mn counting rate data, whichcan be correlated to the underlying mechanisms that produce thesespikes. Conversely, peaks or troughs in the ⁵⁴Mn counting rate data notaccompanied by visible x-ray spikes (such as the trough on 22 December[09:04 EST]) may correspond to flares or other solar events on theopposite side of the Sun which are being detected via neutrinos.Additionally, the angular dependence of previous correlations can play asignificant role in the solar flares as well.

Solar flares produce a variety of electromagnetic effects on Earth,including changes in the Earth's magnetic field and power surges inelectric grids. The observed dips in the ⁵⁴Mn counting rate can arisefrom the response of a detection system to other sources, such as thesolar flare, rather than the ⁵⁴Mn atoms themselves. However, theobserved dip in the ⁵⁴Mn counting rate coincident with the solar flareat 21:37 EST on 12 Dec. 2006 is not likely the result of a conventionalelectromagnetic or other systematic effect.

Coincident fluctuations in the decay data and the solar flare data canarise from statistical fluctuations in each data set. In FIG. 7, thereis a dip region in the decay data in an 84 hour period extending between11 Dec. 2006 (17:52 EST) and 15 Dec. 2006 (06:59 EST). The measurednumber of decays N_(m) in this region can then be compared to the numberof events N_(e) expected in the absence of the observed fluctuations,assuming a monotonic exponential decrease in the counting rate. Sincethe systematic errors in N_(e) and N_(m) are small compared to thestatistical uncertainties in each, only the latter are retained and,

N _(e) −N _(m)=(7.51±1.07)×10⁵,

where the dominant contributions to the overall uncertainty arise fromthe √{square root over (N)} fluctuations in the counting rates. If theequation above is interpreted as a ˜7σ effect, then the formalprobability of such a statistical fluctuation in this 84 hour period is˜3×10⁻¹². Including additional small systematic corrections does notalter the conclusion that the observed fluctuation in the 84 hour windowis not a purely statistical effect.

The frequency of solar radiation storms varies with their intensities,which are rated on a scale from S1(Minor) to S5(Extreme). The 13 Dec.2006 event was rated as an S2 (Moderate), which occurs with an averagefrequency of 25 per 11 year solar cycle. In total, the frequency ofstorms with intensity ≧S2 is ˜39 per 11 year solar cycle, or 9.7×10⁻³,and hence the probability of a storm occurring at any time during the 84hour window in FIG. 7 is ˜3.4×10⁻². If the x-ray and decay peaks areuncorrelated, the probability that they coincided over the short timeinterval of the solar flare is smaller still, and hence a conservativeupper bound on such a statistical coincidence occurring in any 84 hourperiod is ˜1×10⁻¹³. Since a similar analysis applies to the coincidentpeak and dip at 12:40 EST on 17 December, the probability that randomfluctuations produce two sets of coincidences several days apart isnegligibly small.

The ⁵⁴Mn decay rate began to decrease more than one day before anysignal was detected in x-rays by the GOES satellites. Since otherelectromagnetic signals can not reach the Earth earlier than the x-rays,conventional electromagnetic effects arising from the solar flare areunlikely sources. The most significant impact on the geomagnetic fieldoccurs with the arrival of the charged particle flux, several hoursafter the arrival of the x-rays.

A detection system can be affected by fluctuations in line voltages. Analert is triggered if the line voltage strays out of the range 115-126V. No unusual behavior was detected. Moreover, a power surge shifts the⁵⁴Mn peak slightly out of the nominal region of interest (ROI) for the834.8 keV γ-ray, and can be corrected for in the routine course of ourdata acquisition. A correction was not required, however, because asignificant change to neither the peak shape nor location were noted.

FIG. 9 shows fluctuations in the Earth's magnetic field on the detectionsystem. FIG. 9 shows the A_(p) index for the Earth's magnetic fieldduring December 2006, along with the ⁵⁴Mn counting rate. The magneticfield fluctuations, which are characterized by the A_(p) index, areplotted along with the natural logarithm of the ⁵⁴Mn counting rate. Thesharp spike in the A_(p) index at approximately 00:00 EST on 15 Dec.2006 occurred more than two days after the solar flare and theaccompanying dip in the ⁵⁴Mn counting rate, and was not the cause ofthis dip. Therefore, the detection system was insensitive to appliedmagnetic fields that were more than 100 times stronger than the spikeexhibited in FIG. 9, and the counting rate did not depend on themagnitude of the external field.

Therefore, the dips were a response to a change in the flux of aparticle or field (e.g, a neutrino) from the Sun during the flare. Thex-ray spike occurred at ˜21:40 EST, approximately 4 hours after localsunset, which was at 17:21 EST on 12 Dec. 2006. The particle or fieldtraveled ˜9,270 km through the Earth before reaching the ⁵⁴Mn source,and produced a decrease in the counting rate coincident in time with thepeak of the x-ray burst. The monotonic decline of the counting rate inthe 40 hours preceding the dip occurred while the Earth went through 1.7revolutions, and yet there is no obvious diurnal or other periodiceffects. These observations support that the effect arose from aparticle or field (e.g., neutrinos, antineutrinos, or some neutrino-likeparticle) from the Sun, and not from any conventional or terrestrialknown electromagnetic effect or other source, such as known chargedparticles.

Although both the x-ray and proton spikes can be essentiallyinstantaneous, within the time resolution of the detector, the neutrinoflux reached its peak more slowly, having been first detectedapproximately a day earlier. The detection of such “precursor neutrinos”from a solar flare can be used as an early warning system for energy andtelecommunications infrastructure and Global Positioning Systems, aswell as for astronauts, in anticipation of future flares. A neutrinosignal, which anticipates the arrival of a later x-ray or particleburst, can be referred to as a solar neutrino precursor event (SNUPE).

Although somewhat counterintuitive, neutrinos can be detected byrelatively small samples of radioactive nuclides. That is, small samplesof radioactive nuclides can serve as real-time neutrino detectors.Several features of nuclear decays facilitate such detection, e.g., thesensitivity of nuclear half-lives to the available decay energy, andhence, by extension, to small shifts in the decay energy. Furthermore, aclass of spin-dependent neutrino couplings exists, which can account forthe flare data. Radionuclide neutrino detectors can be combined withexisting detectors, such as the Super Kamiokande, for makingmeasurements. Furthermore, historical data can be used to identifytrends and make predictions.

A SNUPE can represent a neutrino signal or a signal carried by anotherparticle or field that interacts relatively weakly with the constituentsof the solar interior or the Earth. Furthermore, the fact that a locallydetectable signal precedes x-ray or radio bursts has practicalconsequences. For example, the arrival of a neutrino signal prior to anx-ray or proton burst can be understood in terms of the differentopacity of the Sun for neutrinos compared to x-rays or chargedparticles.

The ability to detect a SNUPE in real time has immediate practicalconsequences. A single detector or a worldwide array of detectors usinga radioactive sample (e.g., ⁵⁴Mn) can provide electronic systems,telecommunication systems, satellite networks, spacecraft, spacestations, aircraft, power systems, or electrical system an early warningof a solar event (e.g., a large impending solar flare), allowing thesesystems to adopt appropriate protective measures to avoid damage.Furthermore, SNUPE detection systems can be built into futurespacecraft, or settlements on the Moon or other planets, to forewarnastronauts of an impending life-endangering solar storm. Given such awarning, astronauts can be sheltered inside appropriately designedshielded spaces, thus sidestepping the need to protect the entirespacecraft or settlement against such storms.

Furthermore, certain industries (e.g., the insurance industry) mayrequire installation of an early warning system or subscription to aservice to lower insurance premiums for large, expensive satellites andtelecommunications systems that can be damaged by solar events. Incertain embodiments, an entity can be insured with respect to anincome-producing property including a remote module orbiting, in theatmosphere of, or on the surface of a celestial body, a planet, or moon.A policy can be provided to an entity. The policy can define a defaultas failing to have an early warning system or to maintain a subscriptionto a service. The entity can be insured against loss of income orequipment so long as the entity is not in default of the policy.

Another application of the ability to detect neutrinos in real time isto monitor the changing radiation levels being received by patients dueto changing decay rates for radioactive atoms. In thyroid cancer, forexample, where radioactive iodine is implanted in the thyroid, it isdesirable to control the radiation dosage to within 5% or better toensure that the patient is neither overdosed nor underdosed, e.g., dueto changing neutrino flux. Because the technology allows real timemonitoring, medical personnel can modify a treatment protocolappropriately, in response to a change in neutrino flux.

FIG. 10 shows an array of detection systems 70 in communications with aprocessor 26 via a network 74. The array of detection systems 70 can beplaced at various points on the Earth, or some detection systems 70 canbe positioned terrestrial while others are placed outside the Earth'satmosphere. Each detection system 70 can be associated with atelecommunication system, a satellite, a spacecraft, a space station, anaircraft, a power system, or other electrical and electronic system. Theprocessor 26 can be located at a college, university, or commercialfacility. Each detection system 70 can measure a change in flux, and theprocessor 26 can correlate the signals to determine the likelihood of asolar event.

The network 74 can include processor 26 (e.g., a client computing device305) that includes a module for signal processing, e.g., as describedabove. The processor 26 can communicate with one or more servers totransmit and receive information needed by or generated by the processor26. A server can communicate with a database server that manages adatabase (e.g., including historical data regarding solar activity). Inthe network 74, a database can be part of an enterprise network and thecommunication network can be a private company network, for example, anintranet. A server can also communicate with devices outside of theinternal network, using a communication network. A server cancommunicate with the network 74 through a firewall. In the network 74,an external database server, which manages a database, can be anexternal device with which the computing device, via the server, cancommunicate.

In operation, in one embodiment, the processor 26 downloads from adatabase (or an external database) information associated with a solarevent. If downloading from an external database, the processor 26 candownload the information using the communication network 74. Theprocessor 26 can retrieve information from a detection device via adatabase. The processor 26 can determine the likelihood of a solarevent.

In one embodiment, the processor 26 tests for the likelihood of a solarevent by analysis of an electrical signal from a detection system. If achange is observed, e.g., outside a predetermined or predefined, orspecified level, then a solar event is reported, indicated, orsignified. In one embodiment, the processor 26 tests for the likelihoodof a solar event by analysis of the counting rate of photons. If a dip,decrease or trough is observed, then a solar event is reported. In oneembodiment, the processor 26 tests for the likelihood of a solar eventby analysis of the emission of a particle (e.g., an electron, alphaparticle, or beta particle). If an increase is observed, then a solarevent is reported.

An early warning system can provide real-time detection of a particle orfield emitted by the Sun to predict or indicate an impending solarevent, and need not rely on analysis of a historical record tounderstand what has previously occurred. The system can identify complexpatterns in solar data, which can include real-time measurements,historical measurements, and/or predicted or simulated data from models.Appropriate weights can be applied to the various data types based on auser's input. A user can assign weights, or a computer program canassign weights based on user input. For example, real-time measurementscan receive greater weight than historical measurements or modeled data,and/or one radioactive sample may receive greater weight than a secondradioactive sample, e.g., based on sensitivity of the sample, locationof the sample, or the like.

Data patterns (both non-event and event-related) can be identified.Cyclic variations in solar (e.g. solar max/min), interplanetary, orgeophysical activity can be taken into account. Furthermore, aprediction or indication of a solar event can be customized forparticular users or remote modules, and can be updated as new data ismeasured or derived.

Antineutrinos are the anti-particles of neutrinos; each neutrino has itsown anti-particle which in some cases could be the original neutrinoitself Since antineutrinos behave similarly to neutrinos in many ways,the systems described above to detect solar neutrinos can also beutilized to detect antineutrinos, e.g., from nuclear reactors or otherterrestrial sources. Nuclear reactors produce energy from nuclearfission, which results in fission products such as ⁹⁰Sr and ¹³⁷Cs. Theseand other fission products undergo beta-decay, which leads to theproduction of antineutrinos with energies comparable to those of solarneutrinos. Reactor antineutrinos can thus be detected by systemsdescribed herein capable of detecting solar neutrinos based on a changein flux rate.

Additionally, nuclear reactors are capable of producing an extremelyhigh flux of antineutrinos, perhaps exceeding the flux of solarneutrinos. A 1000 MW reactor can produce an antineutrino flux ofapproximately 1×10¹³ cm⁻²s⁻¹ at a few meters from the reactor core, andthis exceeds the known solar flux 6×10¹⁰ cm⁻²s⁻¹. Such antineutrino fluxamounts are readily detectable by the invention. For example, theradioactive sample associated with the detector can have an atomicactivity level, and the detector can measure radioactive countsgenerated by the radioactive sample based on its atomic activity levelover a period of time. In some embodiments, the radioactive sampleassociated with the detector has an atomic activity level of at leastabout 3 nanoCuries, and the system can detect a change in antineutrinoflux based on the detection of at least 100 thousand counts per hour. Insome examples, the system can detect a change in antineutrino flux basedon the detection of at least 100 million counts.

In some embodiments, the antineutrino flux increases or decreasesproportionally according to the distance from the detector to thereactor or other source. For example, the antineutrino flux can beinversely proportional to the square of the distance from the detectorto the reactor. Further, the flux can vary based on the size of thereactor core, or the amount of radioactive material in the reactor core.

A system capable of detecting antineutrinos produced by a reactor hasmany practical applications. From the point of national security such asystem provides a means of detecting nuclear reactors, such as illicitnuclear reactors being operated by a foreign entity. Since modernsubmarines are generally powered by nuclear reactors, the systemdescribed above can detect the presence of enemy submarines (i.e.,submarine reactors) through detection of their emitted antineutrinos.Moreover, detecting antineutrinos from commercial power reactors allowsoperators an additional means of monitoring and controlling a reactor'spower production.

Geoneutrinos (neutrinos or antineutrinos) are produced by the decay ofnaturally occurring radioactive isotopes in the Earth. A typicalgeoneutrino flux is on the order of about 3 million per squarecentimeter per second (i.e., 3×10⁶ cm⁻²s⁻¹)Geoneutrinos can also bedetected by systems and techniques described herein, and local changesin the flux of geoneutrinos can be used to provide an early warning ofan impending earthquake.

The above-described techniques and/or processes can be implemented indigital electronic circuitry, or in computer hardware, firmware,software, or in combinations of them. The implementation can be as acomputer program product, i.e., a computer program tangibly embodied inan information carrier, e.g., in a machine-readable storage device or ina propagated signal, for execution by, or to control the operation of,data processing apparatus, e.g., a programmable processor, a computer,or multiple computers. A computer program can be written in any form ofprogramming language, including compiled or interpreted languages, andit can be deployed in any form, including as a stand-alone program or asa module, component, subroutine, or other unit suitable for use in acomputing environment. A computer program can be deployed to be executedon one computer or on multiple computers at one site or distributedacross multiple sites and interconnected by a communication network.

Method steps can be performed by one or more programmable processorsexecuting a computer program to perform functions of the invention byoperating on input data and generating output. Method steps can also beperformed by, and apparatus can be implemented as, special purpose logiccircuitry, e.g., an FPGA (field programmable gate array) or an ASIC(application-specific integrated circuit).

Processors suitable for the execution of a computer program include, byway of example, both general and special purpose microprocessors, andany one or more processors of any kind of digital computer. Generally, aprocessor will receive instructions and data from a read-only memory ora random access memory or both. The essential elements of a computer area processor for executing instructions and one or more memory devicesfor storing instructions and data. Generally, a computer will alsoinclude, or be operatively coupled to receive data from or transfer datato, or both, one or more mass storage devices for storing data, e.g.,magnetic, magneto-optical disks, or optical disks. Data transmission andinstructions can also occur over a communications network. Informationcarriers suitable for embodying computer program instructions and datainclude all forms of non-volatile memory, including by way of examplesemiconductor memory devices, e.g., EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memorydevices; magnetic disks, e.g., internal hard disks or removable disks;magneto-optical disks; and CD-ROM and DVD-ROM disks. The processor andthe memory can be supplemented by, or incorporated in special purposelogic circuitry.

The terms “module” and “function,” as used herein, mean, but are notlimited to, a software or hardware component which performs certaintasks. A module may advantageously be configured to reside onaddressable storage medium and configured to execute on one or moreprocessors. A module may be fully or partially implemented with ageneral purpose integrated circuit (IC), FPGA or ASIC. Thus, a modulemay include, by way of example, components, such as software components,object-oriented software components, class components and taskcomponents, processes, functions, attributes, procedures, subroutines,segments of program code, drivers, firmware, microcode, circuitry, data,databases, data structures, tables, arrays, and variables. Thefunctionality provided for in the components and modules may be combinedinto fewer components and modules or further separated into additionalcomponents and modules. Additionally, the components and modules mayadvantageously be implemented on many different platforms, includingcomputers, computer servers, data communications infrastructureequipment such as application-enabled switches or routers, ortelecommunications infrastructure equipment, such as public or privatetelephone switches or private branch exchanges (PBX). In any of thesecases, implementation may be achieved either by writing applicationsthat are native to the chosen platform, or by interfacing the platformto one or more external application engines.

To provide for interaction with a user, the above described techniquescan be implemented on a computer having a display device, e.g., a CRT(cathode ray tube) or LCD (liquid crystal display) monitor, fordisplaying information to the user and a keyboard and a pointing device,e.g., a mouse or a trackball, by which the user can provide input to thecomputer (e.g., interact with a user interface element). Other kinds ofdevices can be used to provide for interaction with a user as well; forexample, feedback provided to the user can be any form of sensoryfeedback, e.g., visual feedback, auditory feedback, or tactile feedback;and input from the user can be received in any form, including acoustic,speech, or tactile input.

The above described techniques can be implemented in a distributedcomputing system that includes a back-end component, e.g., as a dataserver, and/or a middleware component, e.g., an application server,and/or a front-end component, e.g., a client computer having a graphicaluser interface and/or a Web browser through which a user can interactwith an example implementation, or any combination of such back-end,middleware, or front-end components. The components of the system can beinterconnected by any form or medium of digital data communication,e.g., a communication network. Examples of communication networksinclude a local area network (“LAN”) and a wide area network (“WAN”),e.g., the Internet, and include both wired and wireless networks.Communication networks can also all or a portion of the PSTN, forexample, a portion owned by a specific carrier.

The computing system can include clients and servers. A client andserver are generally remote from each other and typically interactthrough a communication network. The relationship of client and serverarises by virtue of computer programs running on the respectivecomputers and having a client-server relationship to each other.

While the invention has been particularly shown and described withreference to specific illustrative embodiments, it should be understoodthat various changes in form and detail may be made without departingfrom the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appendedclaims or otherwise described herein.

What is claimed:
 1. An apparatus for detecting the presence of a nuclearreactor by the detection of antineutrinos from the reactor, comprising:a radioactive sample having a measurable nuclear activity level and adecay rate capable of changing in response to the presence ofantineutrinos; a detector associated with the radioactive sample, thedetector responsive to at least one of a particle or radiation formed bydecay of the radioactive sample; and a processor associated with thedetector, the processor correlating rate of decay of the radioactivesample to a flux of the antineutrinos to detect the reactor.
 2. Theapparatus of claim 1 wherein the processor identifies a specific changein the flux of antineutrinos to detect the reactor.
 3. The apparatus ofclaim 1 wherein the radioactive sample has a nuclear activity level ofat least about 3 nanoCuries.
 4. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein theparticle comprises at least one of an electron, a proton, a neutron, analpha particle, or a beta particle.
 5. The apparatus of claim 1 whereinthe radiation comprises at least one gamma ray or photon.
 6. Theapparatus of claim 1 wherein the radioactive sample is a radioactiveisotope of manganese.
 7. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein theradioactive sample comprises a radioactive isotope of at least one ofmanganese, radium, silicon, fluorine, chlorine, titanium, cesium,cobalt, europium, carbon, or sodium.
 8. The apparatus of claim 1 whereinthe detector is responsive to at least one gamma ray emitted fromde-excitation of ⁵⁴Cr produced from K-capture process ⁵⁴Mn+e→⁵⁴Cr+v_(e).9. An apparatus for detecting antineutrinos from a reactor, comprising:a radioactive sample having a measurable rate of radioactive countgeneration and a decay rate capable of changing in response to thepresence of antineutrinos; a detector associated with the radioactivesample, the detector obtaining radioactive count information responsiveto at least one of a particle or radiation formed by decay of theradioactive sample; and a processor associated with the detector, theprocessor correlating the radioactive count information to a flux of theantineutrinos to detect a presence of the reactor.
 10. The apparatus ofclaim 9 wherein the processor identifies a specific change in the fluxof antineutrinos to detect the reactor.
 11. The apparatus of claim 9wherein the radioactive count information includes at least 100 millioncounts.
 12. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein the particle comprises atleast one of an electron, a proton, a neutron, an alpha particle, or abeta particle.
 13. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein the radiationcomprises at least one gamma ray or photon.
 14. The apparatus of claim 9wherein the radioactive sample is a radioactive isotope of manganese.15. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein the radioactive sample comprises aradioactive isotope of at least one of manganese, radium, silicon,fluorine, chlorine, titanium, cesium, cobalt, europium, carbon, orsodium.
 16. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein the detector is responsiveto at least one gamma ray emitted from de-excitation of ⁵⁴Cr producedfrom K-capture process ⁵⁴Mn+e→⁵⁴Cr+v_(e).
 17. An apparatus for detectingantineutrinos from a reactor, comprising: a radioactive sample thatgenerates a measurable number of radioactive counts over a predeterminedperiod of time and having a decay rate capable of changing in responseto the presence of antineutrinos or neutrino-like particles; a detectorassociated with the radioactive sample, the detector measuring a changein a rate of the radioactive count generation responsive the presence ofthe antineutrinos or neutrino-like particles; and a processor associatedwith the detector, the processor correlating the change in the rate ofradioactive count information to detect a presence of the reactor. 18.The apparatus of claim 17 wherein the processor identifies a specificchange in the flux of antineutrinos based on the change in the rate ofradioactive count information to detect the presence of the reactor. 19.The apparatus of claim 17 wherein the rate of the radioactive countgeneration is at least 100 thousand counts per hour.
 20. The system ofclaim 17 wherein the particle comprises at least one of an electron, aproton, a neutron, an alpha particle, or a beta particle.
 21. The systemof claim 17 wherein the radiation comprises at least one gamma ray orphoton.
 22. The system of claim 17 wherein the radioactive sample is aradioactive isotope of manganese.
 23. The system of claim 17 wherein theradioactive sample comprises a radioactive isotope of at least one ofmanganese, radium, silicon, fluorine, chlorine, titanium, cesium,cobalt, europium, carbon, or sodium.
 24. The system of claim 17 whereinthe detector is responsive to at least one gamma ray emitted fromde-excitation of ⁵⁴Cr produced from K-capture process ⁵⁴Mn+e→⁵⁴Cr+v_(e).25. A method for detecting antineutrinos from a reactor, comprising:determining, by a flux detection device, a change in a decay rate of aradioactive sample that changes in response to antineutrinos, theradioactive sample having a measurable nuclear activity level; andcorrelating, by the flux detection device, the decay rate of theradioactive sample with a flux of the antineutrinos.